Causes and mitigation strategies of surface hydrocarbon leaks at heavy-oil fields: examples from Alberta and California

References

1. Alberta Energy Regulator
   . 2014. Summary of Conclusions from the Reservoir Containment Project for Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage Schemes in the Shallow Thermal Area. Internal Report RC-01. Alberta Energy Regulator, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, http://www.aer.ca
   [Google Scholar]
2. Alberta Energy Regulator
   . 2015. Alberta's Energy Reserves 2014 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2015–2024. Report ST98-2015. Alberta Energy Regulator, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, http://www.aer.ca/documents/sts/ST98/ST98-2015.pdf
   [Google Scholar]
3. Alberta Energy Regulator
   . 2016. Root Cause and Regulatory Response Report, Canadian Natural Resources Ltd. Primrose Bitumen Emulsion Releases, 2013. Internal Report. Alberta Energy Regulator, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, https://www.aer.ca/documents/reports/IR_20160321-CNRL.pdf
   [Google Scholar]
4. Altman, S.J., Aminzadeh, B. et al.
   2014. Chemical and hydrodynamic mechanisms for long-term geological carbon storage. Journal of Physics and Chemistry, 118, 15,103–15,113.
   [Google Scholar]
5. Baek, J., Kim, S.-W. & Kim, J.W.
   2015. Monitoring of ground surface and subsurface deformations at oil sands using radar interferometry. Geophysics, 80, EN137–EN152.
   [Google Scholar]
6. Bruno, M.S., Lao, K., Diessl, J., Childers, B., Xiang, J., White, N. & van der Veer, E.
   2014. Development of improved caprock integrity analysis and risk assessment techniques. Energy Procedia, 63, 4708–4744.
   [Google Scholar]
7. Butler, R.M.
   1994. Steam-assisted gravity drainage – Concept, development, performance and future. Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, 33, 44–50.
   [Google Scholar]
8. Butler, R.M.
   2001. Some recent developments in SAGD. Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, 40, 18–22.
   [Google Scholar]
9. Butler, R.M. & Stephens, D.J.
   1981. The gravity drainage of steam heated heavy oil to parallel horizontal wells. Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, 20, 90–96.
   [Google Scholar]
10. Byington, C.B.
    2003. An integrated structural analysis defining structural and geochemical controls of petroleum migration near the 38 and 44 fault systems in the Midway-Sunset oil field, Kern County, California. Unpublished MS thesis, California State University – Bakersfield, California, USA.
    [Google Scholar]
11. Carlson, M.R.
    2012. Detailed consideration of the proposed Joslyn failure mechanism. Canadian Energy Technology and Innovation, 1, 12–19, http://www.appliedreservoir.ca/wp-content/uploads/25_Detail-Joslyn-Failure.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
12. Cartwright, J., Huuse, M. & Aplin, A.
    2007. Seal bypass systems. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 91, 1141–1166.
    [Google Scholar]
13. Chin, L.Y., Tomberlin, T.A., Ramos, G.G. & Chalaturnyk, R.J.
    2012. Evaluation of caprock stability by coupled modeling of geomechanics and reservoir simulation under steam injection for producing oil sands reservoirs. Paper ARMA 12-129 presented at the 46th US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium, 24–27 June 2012, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
    [Google Scholar]
14. CNRL
    . 2013. Primrose Update, Reporting Period August 25–31, 2013. Report to Alberta Energy Regulator. Canadian Natural Resources Ltd, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, www.cnrl.com
    [Google Scholar]
15. CNRL
    . 2014. Primrose Flow to Surface Causation Report. Report prepared for Alberta Energy Regulator and Alberta Environment and Sustainable Resource Development, June 27 2014. Canadian Natural Resources Ltd, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, http://www.aer.ca/documents/reports/CNRL-CausationReport-20140627.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
16. Conley, S., Franco, G., Faloona, I., Blake, D.R., Peischl, J. & Ryerson, T.B.
    2016. Methane emissions from the 2015 Aliso Canyon blowout in Los Angeles, CA. Science, 351, 1317–1320, http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf2348
    [Google Scholar]
17. Cramer, D.D. & Nguyen, D.H.
    2013. Diagnostic fracture injection testing tactics in unconventional reservoirs. Paper SPE 163863 presented at the SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference, 4–6 February 2013, The Woodlands, Texas, USA.
    [Google Scholar]
18. Curtis, C., Kopper, R. et al.
    2002. Heavy oil reservoirs. Oilfield Review, 14, 30–51.
    [Google Scholar]
19. Davidson, J.M., van den Bogert, P., Schutjens, P., Ita, J. & Fokker, P.
    2013. Geomechanical technology for seal integrity analysis – The three-step approach. Paper IPTC 17057 presented at the International Petroleum Technology Conference, 26–28 March 2013, Beijing, China.
    [Google Scholar]
20. DOGGR
    . 2012. Department of Conservation, Division of Oil, Gas and Geothermal Resources Report of Occurrences: the Chevron Fatality Accident June 21 2011 and Area Surface Expression Activity Pre and Post Accident. Division of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOGGR), Sacramento, California, USA, http://psbweb.co.kern.ca.us/UtilityPages/Planning/EIRS/mckittrick_landfill/Vol5/CA%20DOC%20DOGGR%20Well%2020%20--Report%20re%20Chevron%20Fatality%206-21-11%20(5-4-2012).pdf
    [Google Scholar]
21. Du, J., Brissenden, S.J. et al.
    2008. Mapping reservoir volume changes during cyclic steam stimulation using tiltmeter-based surface-deformation measurements. SPE Reservoir Evaluation Formation, 11, 63–72.
    [Google Scholar]
22. Dusseault, M.B.
    2014. Monitoring Reservoir Containment in Thermal EOR. Report RC-05 to Alberta Energy Regulator. Available at: https://www.aer.ca/documents/directives/ReservoirContainment-TechnicalDocuments.zip
    [Google Scholar]
23. Eaton, B.A.
    1969. Fracture gradient prediction and its application in oilfield operations. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 21, 1353–1360.
    [Google Scholar]
24. Energy Resources Conservation Board
    . 2010. ERCB Staff Review and Analysis – Total E&P Canada Ltd, Surface Steam Release of May 18, 2006, Joslyn Creek SAGD Thermal Operation. Report dated February 11, 2010. Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB), Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/documents/45468/45468E.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
25. Energy Resources Conservation Board
    . 2013. Canadian Natural Resources Ltd. Primrose East bitumen Emulsion Release January 3 2009. ERCB Investigation Report dated January 8, 2013. Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB), Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, https://www.aer.ca/documents/reports/IR_20130108_CNRLPrimrose.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
26. Evans, D.J.
    2009. A review of underground fuel storage events and putting risk into perspective with other areas of the energy supply chain. In: Evans, D.J. & Chadwick, R.A. (eds) Underground Gas Storage: Worldwide Experiences and Future Development in the UK and Europe. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 313, 173–216, http://doi.org/10.1144/SP313.12
    [Google Scholar]
27. Ghassemi, A.
    2012. A review of some rock mechanics issues in geothermal reservoir development. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 30, 647–664.
    [Google Scholar]
28. Gu, F., Chan, M. & Fryk, R.
    2011. Geomechanical-data acquisition, monitoring, and applications in SAGD. Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, 50, 9–21.
    [Google Scholar]
29. Hansen, F.D., Hardin, E.L. et al.
    2010. Shale Disposal of U.S. High-Level Radioactive Waste. Report SAND2010–2843. Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
    [Google Scholar]
30. Harding, T.P.
    1976. Tectonic significance and hydrocarbon trapping consequences of sequential folding synchronous with San Andreas faulting, San Joaquin Valley, California. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 60, 356–378.
    [Google Scholar]
31. Haug, K.M., Greene, P., Schneider, C.L. & Mei, S.
    2013. Geological and geomechanical characterization of in situ oil sands caprock in the Athabasca oil sands area, Alberta, Canada. Paper ARMA 13-611 presented at the 47th US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium, 23–26 June 2013, San Francisco, California, USA.
    [Google Scholar]
32. Hein, F.J.
    2013. Overview of heavy oil, seeps, and oil (tar) sands, California. In: Hein, F.J., Leckie, D., Larter, S. & Suter, J.R. (eds) Heavy-Oil and Oil-Sand Petroleum Systems in Alberta and Beyond. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 64, 407–435.
    [Google Scholar]
33. Hein, F.J. & Fairgrieve, B.
    2013. Joslyn Creek steam-assisted gravity drainage: geologic considerations related to a surface steam release incident, Athabasca oil sands area, northeastern Alberta, Canada. In: Hein, F.J., Leckie, D., Larter, S. & Suter, J.R. (eds) Heavy-Oil and Oil-Sand Petroleum Systems in Alberta and Beyond. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 64, 747–772.
    [Google Scholar]
34. Hein, F.J., Dolby, G. & Fairgrieve, B.
    2013. A regional geologic framework for the Athabasca oil sands, northeastern Alberta, Canada. In: Hein, F.J., Leckie, D., Larter, S. & Suter, J.R. (eds) Heavy-Oil and Oil-Sand Petroleum Systems in Alberta and Beyond. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 64, 207–250.
    [Google Scholar]
35. Hodgson, S.F.
    1980. Onshore Oil and Gas Seeps in California. California Department of Conservation, Division of Oil and Gas, Sacramento, Publications, Sacramento, California, TR26.
    [Google Scholar]
36. Hopkins, A.
    2012. Disastrous Decisions – The Human and Organisational Causes of the Gulf of Mexico Blowout. CCH Australia Ltd, Sydney, Australia.
    [Google Scholar]
37. Khan, S., Han, H., Ansari, S., Vishteh, M. & Khosravi, N.
    2011. Caprock integrity analysis in thermal operations – An integrated geomechanics approach. Paper WHOC11-609 presented at the World Heavy Oil Congress, 14–17 March 2011, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
    [Google Scholar]
38. Kron, N.D. & Malone, D.H.
    2015. Three-dimensional geologic model of the Pecatonica gas storage field, Winnebago County, Illinois. World Journal of Environmental Engineering, 3, 121–125.
    [Google Scholar]
39. Kumar, M. & Beatty, F.D.
    1995. Cyclic steaming in heavy oil diatomite. Paper SPE 29623 presented at the Western Regional Meeting, 8–10 March 1995, Bakersfield, California, USA.
    [Google Scholar]
40. Leith, T.L., Kaarstad, I., Connan, J., Pierron, J. & Caillet, G.
    1993. Recognition of caprock leakage in the Snorre Field, Norwegian North Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 10, 29–41.
    [Google Scholar]
41. Lesage, M., Hall, P., Pearson, J.R.A. & Thiercelin, M.J.
    1991. Pore-pressure and fracture-gradient predictions. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 43, 652–654.
    [Google Scholar]
42. Linnitt, C.
    2014. CNRL Releases New, Lower Cold Lake Oil Spill Estimates. Article dated 20 February 2014. DeSmog Canada, Victoria, BC, Canada, http://desmog.ca/2014/02/19/cnrl-releases-new-lower-cold-lake-oil-spill-estimates
    [Google Scholar]
43. McLennan, J.A., Allwardt, P.F., Hennings, P.H. & Farrell, H.E.
    2009. Multivariate fracture intensity prediction: Application to Oil Mountain anticline, Wyoming. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 93, 1585–1595.
    [Google Scholar]
44. Meldau, R.F., Shipley, R.G. & Coats, K.H.
    1981. Cyclic gas/steam stimulation of heavy-oil wells. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 33, 1990–1998.
    [Google Scholar]
45. Meyer, R.F., Attanasi, E.D. & Freeman, P.A.
    2007. Heavy Oil and Natural Bitumen Resources in Geological Basins of the World. United States Geological Survey, Open File Report, 2007-1084.
    [Google Scholar]
46. Nanayakkara, A.S. & Wong, R.C.K.
    2009. How far does surface heave propagate? a discussion on analytical and numerical modeling of the surface heave induced by subsurface fluid injection. Korean Society of Civil Engineering Journal of Civil Engineering, 13, 297–303.
    [Google Scholar]
47. Olsen, D.K.
    & Ramzel, E.D. 1995. State of Heavy Oil Production and Refining in California. Cooperative Agreement DE-FC22-83FE60149. Proceedings of the sixth UNITAR International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands, Houston, Texas, 12–17 February 1995. United States Department of Energy Report, 1995-018, 159–172.
    [Google Scholar]
48. Pawar, R.J., Bromhal, G.S. et al.
    2015. Recent advances in risk assessment and risk management of geologic CO2 storage. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 40, 292–311.
    [Google Scholar]
49. Primrose Flow to Surface Independent Technical Panel
    . 2014. Independent Panel Review of the Canadian Natural Primrose Flow to Surface Causation Report. Internal report to Alberta Energy Regulator dated July 14, 2014, http://www.aer.ca/documents/reports/CNRLPrimrose_PanelReport_201407.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
50. Prost, G.L. & Newsome, J.
    2016. Caprock integrity determination at the Christina Lake thermal recovery project, Alberta. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Society, 64, 309–323.
    [Google Scholar]
51. Roche, P.
    2016. AER, CNRL disagree on role of old wellbores in Primrose bitumen leaking to surface. Daily Oil Bulletin, article dated 22 March 2016, http://www.dailyoilbulletin.com/article/2016/3/22/aer-cnrl-disagree-role-old-wellbores-primrose-bitu
    [Google Scholar]
52. Ross, E.
    2014. CNRL reports underground casing failure at Primrose. Daily Oil Bulletin, article dated 10 January 2014, http://www.dailyoilbulletin.com/article/2014/1/10/cnrl-reports-underground-casing-failure-primrose
    [Google Scholar]
53. Rutqvist, J.
    2012. The geomechanics of CO2 storage in deep sedimentary formations. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 30, 525–551.
    [Google Scholar]
54. Schultz, R.A., Summers, L.E., Lynch, K.W. & Bouchard, A.J.
    2014. Subsurface containment assurance program – Key element overview and best practice examples. Paper OTC 24851 presented at the Offshore Technology Conference Asia, 25–28 March 2014, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
    [Google Scholar]
55. Schultz, R.A., Mutlu, U. & Bere, A.
    2016. Critical issues in subsurface integrity. Paper ARMA 16-037 presented at the 50th US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium, 26–29 June 2016, Houston, Texas, USA.
    [Google Scholar]
56. Sella, G.F., Stein, S., Dixon, T.H., Craymer, M., James, T.S., Mazotti, S. & Dokka, R.K.
    2007. Observation of glacial isostatic adjustment in ‘stable’ North America with GPS. Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L02306. http://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL027081
    [Google Scholar]
57. Shen, C.
    2013. SAGD for heavy oil recovery. In: Sheng, J. (ed.) Enhanced Oil Recovery Field Case Studies. Gulf Professional/ Elsevier, Oxford, 413–445.
    [Google Scholar]
58. Sklet, S.
    2006. Safety barriers – definition, classification, and performance. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 19, 494–506.
    [Google Scholar]
59. Skogdalen, J.E. & Vinnem, J.E.
    2012. Quantitative risk analysis of oil and gas drilling, using Deepwater Horizon as case study. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 100, 58–66.
    [Google Scholar]
60. Skogdalen, J.E., Utne, I.B. & Vinnem, J.E.
    2011. Developing safety indicators for preventing offshore oil and gas deepwater drilling blowouts. Safety Science, 49, 1187–1199.
    [Google Scholar]
61. Stancliffe, R.P.W. & van der Kooij, M.A.
    2001. The use of satellite-based radar interferometry to monitor production activity at the Cold Lake heavy oil field, Alberta, Canada. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 85, 781–793.
    [Google Scholar]
62. Takahashi, K.I. & Gautier, D.L.
    2007. A brief history of oil and gas exploration in the southern San Joaquin Valley of California. In: Hosford Scheirer, A. (ed.) Petroleum Systems and Geologic Assessment of Oil and Gas in the San Joaquin Basin Province, California. United States Geological Survey, Professional Papers, Reston, Virginia, 1713.
    [Google Scholar]
63. Timoney, K. & Lee, P.
    2014. CNRL's Persistent 2013–2014 Bitumen Releases near Cold Lake Alberta – Facts, Unanswered Questions, and Implications. Global Forest Watch, http://www.globalforestwatch.ca/files/publications/20140206A_CNRL_Release_Bulletin.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
64. Total E&P Canada Ltd
    . 2007. Summary of Investigations into the Joslyn May 18th 2006 Steam Release. Report TEPC/GSR/2007.006 dated December 2007, released in 2010. Total E&P Canada Ltd, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, http://www.aer.ca/documents/reports/Total_Canada_Report_JoslynSteamRelease_2010-02.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
65. Total E&P Canada Ltd
    . 2008. ERCB Approval No. 9272C Joslyn Creek in situ Oil Sands Scheme, October 8, 2008. Report to Energy Resources Conservation Board, Alberta, Canada. Total E&P Canada Ltd, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, http://aer.ca/data-and-publications/activity-and-data/in-situ-performance-presentations
    [Google Scholar]
66. Warrick, J.
    2015. New infrared video reveals growing environmental disaster in L.A. gas leak. Washington Post, 24 December 24 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/12/23/new-infrared-video-reveals-growing-environmental-disaster-in-la-gas-leak
    [Google Scholar]
67. Yuan, Y., Xu, B. & Yang, B.
    2011. Geomechanics for the thermal stimulation of heavy oil reservoirs – Canadian experience. Paper SPE 150293 presented at the SPE Heavy Oil Conference and Exhibition, 12–14 December 2011, Kuwait City, Kuwait.
    [Google Scholar]